Hamlet, Laertes and Fortinbras are all reflections on each other Essay

â€Å"The world is a looking glass. † This synecdochic statement of 19th century English novelist, William Makepeace Thackeray, encapsulates the idea of reflections of ourselves being evident all around us in different aspects of the world. Whether in the words, actions or attitudes of others, we tend to see something of ourselves. Shakespeare employs this theme of reflection in his works such as in Antony and Cleopatra where Caesar recognises that Antony is, as stated by Maecenas, â€Å"a spacious mirror set before him† and this reflects to Caesar both the dimensions of he and his fellow triumvir, leading Caesar to the realisation that the world is not big enough for the two of them as can be interpreted from â€Å"†¦ we could not stall together/ In the whole world. † Reflection is thus a recurrent motif in Shakespeare’s works, and is a key issue which arises in the course of the play Hamlet. Hamlet is a play which involves a lot of reflection and mirroring in various ways. One of the most notable is the ‘play within a play’ or ‘The Mousetrap’ which mirrors the relationship King Hamlet had with Gertrude as well as the manner in which King Hamlet was murdered. Hamlet himself sees performance as a way of reflecting inner corruption; holding â€Å"the mirror up to nature. † The idea of mirroring or doubling can further be seen in Shakespeare’s use of literary techniques like hendiadys such as in Hamlet’s reflective ‘To be, or not to be’ soliloquy where he says, ‘slings and arrows of outrageous fortune’ and ‘whips and scorns of time’ or later in the play where Hamlet says to Horatio, â€Å"Fortune’s buffets and rewards. † Shakespeare’s use of hendiadys helps to place emphasis on the message he is trying to get across as the words mirror each other and act as a sort of parallelism, creating a balance in the phrases. But even more notable in the play with regards reflection, is the manner in which the characters of Hamlet, Laertes and Fortinbras reflect on each other. These three characters are all young men who, at some point, have lost or will lose a father. Hamlet has returned to Denmark from school in Wittenberg to mourn his father’s death and is so much in grief that he says, â€Å"How weary, stale, flat and unprofitable/ Seem to me all the uses of this world! † The use of lists and exclamation marks emphasises the extent of his grief and make us sympathise with him. Young Fortinbras has also lost his father, Fortinbras, as we come to know from Horatio’s speech that King Hamlet â€Å"Did slay this Fortinbras. † Laertes, in the course of the play, also returns from France to Denmark to find that his father, Polonius has been killed. They thus reflect on themselves in that they have all lost their fathers, but furthermore in that they all seek to avenge the deaths of their fathers. Hamlet is charged by the ghost of King Hamlet to â€Å"Revenge his foul and most unnatural murder! † The exclamation mark and use of striking adjectives highlight that this is an order, a duty which Hamlet has to carry out, and he expresses his feelings about this in the heroic couplet, â€Å"The time is out of joint: O cursi d spite,/ That ever I was born to set it right. † Fortinbras, likewise, is seeking to avenge the death of his father, King Fortinbras of Norway by regaining the land lost by his father in war, and waging war on Denmark. When Hamlet sees Fortinbras leading his army through Denmark to Poland, he draws parallels between his cause and that of Fortinbras. Similarly, Laertes, on finding out about his father’s death, declares, â€Å"I’ll be revenged/ Most throughly for my father. † Hamlet recognises the similarity between his cause and that of Laertes and states later on in the play, â€Å"For by the image of my cause, I see the portraiture of his. † However, it is open to interpretation whether or not Hamlet was referring to revenge as his ’cause’, for as Philip Edward argues, Harold Jenkins points out that Hamlet simply does not recognise himself as a proposed victim of Laertes’ revenge, and thus Hamlet simply meant, when he made that statement, that as a son grieving his father, he should have realised that grief makes one act strangely. Nevertheless, Hamlet does recognise an aspect of himself reflected in that of Laertes. Thus, Hamlet, Laertes and Fortinbras all seek to avenge the death of their fathers, but they each work towards this end with varying methods. Whilst Hamlet is the vacillating, hesitant one searching for proof and taking his time, and Fortinbras is the calculating but quick-acting, resolute one, Laertes is the more aggressive typical revenge hero. Hamlet spends so much time dithering and searching for proof that the ghost has to reappear to â€Å"whet thy almost blunted purpose. † The use of words associated with knives or daggers, that is ‘whet’ and ‘blunted’, remind us that Hamlet’s purpose is to kill to avenge his father, rather than his inactivity. Hamlet says of Fortinbras, on the other hand, that his â€Å"spirit is with divine ambition puffed† and thus he is able to lead the Norwegian army to fight over a ‘little patch of ground’. Laertes’ brutal, aggressive approach can be seen not only in the way he breaks into the Danish palace to confront Claudius over his father’s death but also how he says of Hamlet that he would â€Å"cut his throat I’th’church† The aggressiveness in this statement is emphasised by the use of alliteration in ‘throat’ and ‘th’church’. Thus, their varying methods are comparable, so that we can identify from one to the other the preferred path or more successful path to have taken. Whilst Laertes and Fortinbras are thus more typical Aristotelian tragic heroes, in that they have ‘consistency’ as once their personality and motivations are established, they continue throughout the play. Hamlet, on the other hand, falls short of this as he dithers and almost loses sight of his goal. This sheds light on a reason for which Shakespeare appears to have made use of reflections in his work- that of revealing shortcomings. Hamlet, Laertes and Fortinbras reflect on each other in such a manner that they highlight the shortcomings of each other. As Shakespeare states in his Sonnet 77, â€Å"Thy glass will show thee how thy beauties wear. † The whole idea is that our reflections make us more aware of our flaws, and this can be seen where Hamlet, having seen Fortinbras march his army through Denmark, says, â€Å"How all occasions do inform against me,/ And spur my dull revenge! † He is reminded, by the reflection of his cause in that of Fortinbras, that whilst Fortinbras is active and resolute, his revenge is ‘dull’. This idea of reflections showing our flaws or shortcomings is also employed by Shakespeare in Richard 11 where the deposed king hopes to see his sorrows etched in his reflection and states, â€Å"Give me that glass, and therein will I read. /No deeper wrinkles yet? † The alliteration in ‘give’ and ‘glass’ as well as the use of rhetorical question help to highlight the king’s desperation to see his sorrows in his reflection. Reflections also act, in Shakespeare, as a trigger or a call to action. When Hamlet sees Fortinbras and his army, it ‘spurs’ his revenge so that he is led to say in a rhyming couplet, â€Å"Oh from this time forth,/ My thoughts be bloody or be nothing worth. † His use of the graphic adjective ‘bloody’ emphasises his resolution and is rather reminiscent of the sort of decisiveness that we would expect from a typical revenge hero. Furthermore, when Hamlet sees ‘the portraiture’ of Laertes’ cause in the image of his, he is led to regret his outburst to Laertes at their battle at Ophelia’s grave and to ‘court’ Laertes’ ‘favours’. Ophelia, in the course of the play, refers to Hamlet metaphorically as â€Å"The glass of fashion. † He appears to have been the reflection of what noblemen should be; the one to be emulated. All noblemen in Hamlet’s Denmark, like the society of Shakespeare’s England, were expected to remark and imitate the manners of the prince. Thus, we can understand why Hamlet is, in the words of Claudius, ‘loved of the distracted multitude’ and why Fortinbras speaks of him so highly. Nevertheless, following his act of madness and outburst at Ophelia, Ophelia mourns that this noble mind, this ‘glass of fashion,’ is ‘quite, quite down! † The repetition of ‘quite’ relays to us how greatly Hamlet has changed from the reflection of nobility that he used to be. It is also interesting to note that Hamlet sees a reflection of his cause in that of Fortinbras and Laertes towards the end of the play in a form of anagnorisis. However, at the start of the play, he seems deeply sceptical about the ability of anything to reflect him truly. According to Philippa Kelly, he mocks verbal and physical display as having the incapacity to ‘denote me truly’. In his mocking summation of Laertes even in the final act of the play, he appears sure that nothing and no one could reflect Laertes â€Å"he his semblable is his mirror, and who else would trace him, his umbrage, nothing more. † His argument is that words fall short of describing Laertes’ greatness, but earlier on we know that he has declared that he sees a reflection of his cause in that of Laertes. Thus, although Hamlet, ab initio, comes across as one who feels that nothing can reflect him, nothing can denote him truly or body him forth as would the dissection of his organs, he comes to realise that reflections are indeed everywhere as can be interpreted from William Thackeray’s statement, â€Å"The world is a looking glass. † In the actions, words, causes and attitudes of others, particularly Laertes and Fortinbras, he sees a reflection of his own self and is, from these reflections, made aware of his shortcomings and spurred to action in eventually avenging the death of his father.

NCTM standards for elementary school mathematics Essay

The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics is a teacher support organization to improve the learning standards of mathematics and ensuring equitable access to quality mathematics teaching and learning, the organization is focused on research, professional development, advocacy, equity and curriculum instruction and assessment. The council developed ten standards based on the mathematical content and processes, according to Bassarear,(2007), those based on mathematical content include Number and Operations, Algebra, Geometry, Measurement, and Data Analysis and Probability, while the standards based on processes are Problem Solving, Reasoning and Proof, Communication, Connections, and Representation. The strands are applicable in different levels of elementary education. The strands developed are founded on the six principles of Curriculum, Equity, Learning, Assessment, Teaching and Technology and articulate that Number and Operations which is concerned with creating and enlarging understanding of whole numbers as this is elemental requisite in mathematics. Geometry is concerned with recognizing shapes and recounting spatial relationships that exist, it deals with analyzing characteristics and attributes of two- and three-dimensional geometric shapes, geometry also is concerned with creating mathematical opinions concerning geometric relationships, such as locations, symmetry, transformations, visualization and coordinate geometry. Measurement is another standard which is concerned with terms of discovering assessable attributes and evaluating objects by using these attributes. Data analysis and probability is concerned with application of data management and probability techniques, such as data collection, organization, data analyses, sorting and using inferences. The other standards are problem solving where students should be able to derive solutions of problems, Reasoning and Proof where the answers to the problems can be verified by mathematical means, Communication in terms of conversing the answers derived and methodology used, Connections in establishing relationship between different mathematical techniques and representation where students should be able to represent the problems and the solutions. While the proposed standards have been faced with controversies, they have supported immensely the regulation of elementary schools mathematics in United States and Canada. References Bassarear, Tom. (2007). Mathematics for Elementary School Teachers. Florence, KY: Cengage Learning.

The repeal of the US Banking Act 1933 (commonly known as the Essay

The repeal of the US Banking Act 1933 (commonly known as the Glass-Steagall Act) was a substantial cause of the global bankin - Essay Example Stock markets in most of the countries plunged and there was widespread inflation everywhere. Food and oil prices rose to an all time high. Oil price went as high as $147 a barrel. (Oil and Gasoline, April 6, 2011). Lack of purchasing power led to a fall in demand for goods and as a result several industries suffered. International institutions like IMF and European Union outlined several corrective policies and advised nations on adopting more risk aversive regulatory measures for the national financial institutions. All over the world the governments dished out policies and bailout programs for the citizens and institutions to tackle problems like inflation and unemployment. Most of the countries spent huge amount of money from their federal reserve’s in an effort to bring them back to the path of sustained growth. German government helped Hypo Real Estate with $50 billion (Bettinga and Parkin, September 29, 2008). Investors from UK had huge losses in the London Stock Exchan ge. On October 2008 the British government announced a plan worth $850 billion to rescue its banks from going into insolvency. (Nanto, 2010, p.58) The US government adopted the Troubled Asset Relief Program in 3rd October 2008 to rescue the distressed homeowners and also lent to $182 billion to AIG to prevent it from going down (GAO, 2009; The Troubled Asset Relief Program, n.d.). In total they pledged $700 billion to fight the recession in their country. The bailout though saved the economy for the time being, a lot of senators argued that these monetary assistance from public money cannot chart long-term growth stability for the country. They emphasized on the need for the Glass- Steagall Act that was enacted at the time of the Great Depression to be reinforced. In this paper we shall try to address the issue concerning whether the Glass-Steagall Act was needed to prevent the Financial Crisis. About the Act United States experienced worst recessions in its history during the 1930s . One of the primary reasons behind the recession was that the bankers and brokers of the nation were guilty of dubious financial practices like using their customer’s deposit to invest in stocks and securities. Also they used their financial might to inflate the prices of the securities and did not have enough capital cushions to back up their investments. So when the public got scared and wanted to withdraw their deposits a large number of banks went insolvent. A large number of small banks filed for bankruptcy and the nation faced an extreme crisis. Under such circumstances the US Banking Act of 1933 also called the Glass-Seagull Act was enacted under President Roosevelt to prevent the country from further such disasters. The Glass-Steagall Act had two main components. They are as follows: Setting up the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) to insure the deposit of the customers and secure their deposit: This was done firstly, to restore the customers faith in bank deposits and secondly, to collect money so that the banks can be assisted in terms of liquidity crisis. A lot of banks were saved from bankruptcy by receiving capital from the FDIC. Separating the commercial banking activities from the investment banking activity: Firstly, this would prevent the banks from using the saving of their customer to indulge in buying stocks and bonds.

Jewish Immigration History Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Jewish Immigration History - Essay Example This necessitated their migration to seek a better start, in America, which was regarded as land that valued freedom and equality. They also migrated to take tap into the opportunities that abounded in the American community. This era of migration had significant implication in global history. Place of origin The group to be analyzed is the Jewish immigrants that settled in America according to historical records. Jewish immigrants from Eastern Europe origin are traced from Russia and Eastern Europe. The period is traced in the early 1880 and 1924 and is one of the utmost immigration to occur in American Jewish history. The main reason for the Jews immigration from the initial region was because of economic and anti-Semitism, which they believed was sufficient in America. The main place of origin was from Eastern Europe and statistics show that five out of six of Americans Jewish are from that place (Daniels, 223). They are believed to have settled in the heavy industrial areas that were characterized by extensive commercial and cultural centers. The town they settled are as follows; ‘New York’, ‘Philadelphia’, ‘Boston’ and ‘Baltimore’. The worked exceptionally hard to stabilize their economy and managed to live affluent lives, which they believe is part of their life. ...hard in industries such as garment industries, petty trade, and cigar manufactures, constructions and food production, which enable Jewish immigrants, to raise their children and stabilize their economy. Those from Europe were from Spain and areas bordering Mediterranean, Germany and some portions of Poland. The core rationale for migrating from their indigenous areas was because of harassment and discrimination. They were mistreated and strained to labor without substantial wages (Daniels, 225). Religion The Jewish religious’ aspect was characterized by strict submission to the strategy and rules that guide the lives of the people. Th e group consisted of religious streams such as orthodox, reformist, and conservative.

The Doubting Game as Opposite to the Believing Game Essay

The Doubting Game as Opposite to the Believing Game - Essay Example The doubting game is opposite to the believing game and requires an individual to contest a certain idea or subject.   The doubting and believing game can be played by one acknowledging the fact that there are two sides to every argument. In the believing game, the students may assess each point uniquely and find the good things about it. These can then be used to help the students believe the point which may otherwise be different from their own. The doubting game is simpler as it is easier to identify error than to believe in something (Elbow, 2008).   Hence, in this game individuals may assess a point and look what is accurate and what is inaccurate. Hence, concluding that all the information that they assume to be inaccurate is incorrect and create an opinion based on the inaccuracy. An example of an issue that has been widely discussed is euthanasia and whether it should be legalized. Each individual has a right to live which consequently means he or she has a right to die h ence euthanasia should be legalized. People who are against the legalization of euthanasia state that this could lead to a slippery slope (â€Å"Euthanasia Pros and Cons†, n.d).   This view is valid and interesting as allowing the killing of a human being raises the question of where a line should be drawn. If euthanasia is permitted people will start to question other aspects of morality. This raises an even bigger problem as morality is not factual but subjective. Hence, if allowing a morally objected matter such as the killing of innocent human beings for any purpose other morals in society will come into question. If I possessed this belief I would see the need to change many aspects of society and revise the definition of murder as euthanasia is an act of killing another human being. The slippery slope could be true in many different cases involving hospital ethics and society’s views for murder and value for life.  

Early American History - Abraham Lincoln Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Early American History - Abraham Lincoln - Essay Example The three-day bloodbath ended with a massive Confederate assault of Cemetery Ridge by Major General George Edward Pickett on the battle’s last day, July 3, 1863. Known as ‘Pickett’s Charge,’ the reckless action devastated the Confederate forces and caused General Robert E. Lee to offer his resignation. The enormous losses incurred by the Confederates at Gettysburg marked the beginning of the end for the South. The Union army won the battle but also incurred heavy losses causing Commander General George Meade to offer his resignation as well. While Lee was retained as commander of the South, Meade was replaced by an angered President Lincoln who appointed Ulysses S. Grant in Meade’s position. After the battle, the Southern troops limped back home while what remained of the Northern army stayed because of flooding in the area. At Gettysburg, many thousands of decomposing bodies littered the battlefield, many of which were buried in very shallow graves. According to a witness, â€Å"body parts stuck up here and there. Hogs rooted out the bodies and devoured them† (Wills, 1992 p. 21). To alleviate the gruesome situation, a national cemetery was planned so that the dead could be buried properly. The dedication of the cemetery was held before all the thousands of bodies could be buried, but it was hoped that a formal and somber ceremony would serve to change the horrific scene of butchery to a place of honor and one that displayed a more peaceful ambiance.

Consumerism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Consumerism - Essay Example In America a child spends averagely 10 700 minutes in a week watching advertisements. There are so many advertisements aired daily in America convincing people to buy products from different companies. This is mainly because America is a hyper-consumerist society. An advertisement not only helps companies in product promotion but also gives a new perception about shopping. The advertisement tends to make people believe that shopping is about happiness. Therefore many consumers become obsessed with shopping believing it brings self-happiness (OGuinn et al. 283). The truth of the matter is that happiness is realized even if it is for a while. The good thing is that there is creation of more and more companies, more goods as well as job opportunities. This in turn helps in the growth of the United States economy. Most of the advertisements also are directed by children. Business Corporation uses the nagging idea. This is whereby the corporations use children in their advertisements. In turn the children watching the advertisements will nag their parents into buying the new product. Consumerism has also promoted better housing as compared to some years back. People are also buying more sophisticated home theatre systems, cars as well as clothes (Dwyer 23-46). Consumerism if not well looked at can be a problem to environmental sustainability. Planet earth cannot support the American style of consumption in every nation. There is need for magnitude change in consumption patterns among consumers behavior in buying items. Consumers need to stop buying too many toys and base their consumption on non-renewable resources. However, hyper- consumerism brings up many questions. One of the main questions is the use of money. Toys are bought using money, the money used to buy the toys take time to earn (Veblen 1). Most of the people in the contemporary American society, spend most of their times

The Joe Salatino President of Great Northern American Case Study Research Paper

The Joe Salatino President of Great Northern American Case Study - Research Paper Example Perception and attribution are of greater significance in comprehending and administering of the organizational behavior, since all the decisions along with behavior in Great Northern American tend to be impacted by the way in which its members interpret and make meaning out of them. When an individual observes people, he/she tries to identify the reasons behind the persons behaving in certain manners. The basis of the attribution theory is that an individual wants to understand the reasons behind the actions that he/she is taking and others take. An individual further wants to attribute reasons to behaviors he/she observes instead of assuming that these behaviors are random. It is quite significant to mention the fact that attributions are crucial for Great Northern American since perceived reasons of behavior may impact managers’ and employees’ judgments and actions. Joe Salatino perceives the fact that in order to keep the sales force motivated and dedicated, it is q uite significant to spend money on commissions and bonuses. It is worthy of mentioning the fact that there are two forms of attributions. They are internal attribution and external attribution. The internal attribution is likely to take place when an individual believes that a particular behavior has been chosen freely, it was deliberate in nature and was quite low in terms of social desirability. When the salespersons at Great Northern American are not capable of handling the self-starting selling intensity, they may leave the company because of their dissatisfaction level. Such behavior is generally called internal attribution. On the other hand, an external attribution takes place when it is believed that the behavior was not freely selected and it was unintended. For instance, despite Joe Salatino offering his employees with bonus and commission for good job done, if the employees demonstrate the tendency to leave the organization, then it can be identified as external attributi on (Martinko, 2004). It is found that Joe Salatino felt that his employees were not much effective. Some employees were functioning very effectively and were earning more than the salary of the top producers because they were capable of generating huge sales for the company. On the other hand, most of the employees were leaving the company since they were not capable of handling the ‘self-starting selling intensity’ and disorder. In addition to these, Joe Salatino noted that it took for an employee a year to develop good account base. When Joe Salatino confronted with these issues he tried to realize what caused those events. When Joe Salatino experienced unpleasant outcomes, attributions could assist him in identifying and avoiding the behaviors as well as other factors that led them to happen. On the contrary, when Joe Salatino experienced pleasant outcomes, he would prefer understanding the behavior that led to such actions of the customers as well as employees. It c an be noted that such attribution and perception theory can assist Joe Salatino to identify what actions the company must take in order to bring significant improvements in the behaviors of the employees whose performances have been below satisfactory level in comparison to those employees whose performances are satisfactory. Therefore, it is the proper understanding of the behavior of

Subprime Mortgage Crisis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Subprime Mortgage Crisis - Essay Example When home prices started falling and those loans started to go bad, Bear’s creditors got scared and pulled their money out of the investment bank. The U.S.  subprime mortgage crisis  was an unfolding of events and that were significant aspects of a financial recession and subsequent crisis that was manifested significantly in 2008. It was characterized by an upsurge in  subprime  mortgage and foreclosures, and the resultant drop of securities was backed up by the mortgages. These  mortgage-backed securities  (MBS) and collateralized debt obligations  (CDO) usually offered attractive return rates due to the high rates of interest on the mortgages but the lower quality of credit ultimately caused huge defaults. In as much as the crisis elements became more clear in 2007, most major financial institutions collapsed in September of 2008, with distinguishable disruption in the credit flow to businesses and consumers during the onset of the most severe worldwide recession. This subprime mortgage crisis was accompanied by fraud issues concerning relating to the Bear Stearns Company. Bear Stearns, had been on Wall Street feature from 1923 and had survived the 1929 crash without laying off any employees. But in 2008, its customers and creditors were worried that the billions of dollars of mortgage-backed securities on its books weren’t worth what the company claimed. Therefore, they stopped doing business with Bear Stearns. Within a few days; Bear was digested into JPMorgan Chase & Co. via the help of the Federal Reserve for an approximate value of a new Madison Avenue office tower. Bear Stearns failure was attributed largely to gorging on subprime mortgages in the previous years in what was termed as a continually-rising housing market.  

Can feminism be thought of as a theory of law Essay Example for Free

Can feminism be thought of as a theory of law Essay As a concept, feminism is very much a modern notion within legal circles, which aims to eradicate any prejudice against womens rights. This in a society strongly founded upon a male-orientated legal system, which historically fails to recognise the social and legal rights of women, and instead focuses upon male-orientated theories and ideologies.1 It is this patriarchy that feminists thrive to eliminate. The essence of patriarchy is emphasised by the Marxist legal theory, developed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in the 19th Century, which places no emphasis upon gender, and consequently belittles the feminists fight for gender equality. Juxtaposed with the rigid Marxist approach to legal rule is the postmodernist dialect that offers a positive method of forcing individuals to confront and change the rigid contexts and structures (including laws) within which they have arbitrarily confined themselves.2 The ideology of feminism is split into three distinct categories, all of which work towards one common goal of removing gender prejudices: 1) Liberal feminism is grounded in classical liberal thinking that individuals should be free to develop their own talents and pursue their own interests. Liberal feminists accept the basic organisation of our society but seek to expand the rights and opportunities of women. Liberal feminists support equal rights and oppose prejudice and discrimination that block the aspirations of women.3 2) Socialist feminism is an evolution from Marxist conflict theory, essentially made in reaction to the little attention Marx paid to gender. Socialist feminists argue that the bourgeois family must be restructured to end domestic slavery in favour of some collective means of carrying out housework and child care. The key to this goal, in turn, is a socialist revolution that creates a state-centred economy operating to meet the needs of all. Such a basic transformation of society requires that women and men pursue their personal liberation together, rather than individually, as liberal feminists maintain.4 3) The third form of feminism is radical feminism. This, as the name suggests is the most extreme version of feminism, it disregards the liberal theory as superficial and inadequate,5 and they claim that even a socialist revolution would not end patriarchy. Radical feminists strive to create a society free from any gender inequality by completely abolishing the cultural notion of gender. To look at these three forms of feminism an observer would be ignorant to discard feminism as having no legal influence, as it is clear to see from these that support for such movements is vast and comes in various forms, all of which attack the same enemy, patriarchy, albeit in differing manners. These differing methods are accentuated by recent developments and movements in society, particularly in the 20th Century these can be clearly highlighted by looking at the actions of the suffragettes in 1910, which illustrate a more active approach to campaigning. As previously mentioned feminist legal theories are a contemporary concept, for this reason a radical new methodology in legal theory is required in order to encompass the new issues raised by feminism as a legal theory. Such a new methodology could be found in the critical legal theory method, as it would be able to incorporate feminist views such as the theory that a male-orientated appreciation of law emphasises individualism and rights at the expense of female emphases upon interaction and cooperation. 6 This approach is however, solely a theoretical one, and as such it does not entirely cover the needs of feminism, insofar as feminism is only partially and peripherally concerned with academic theorising,7 the major part of the work of feminism is to promote the dissatisfactions of a wide spectrum of women, which highlight the general inequality felt by women in regards to legal and social equality. Therefore critical legal studies, instead of acting as a definition, are rather a useful means of indicating the explicit and implicit male orientation of law and legal administration and the resulting disadvantage and marginalisation often suffered by women.8 This has led to the recognition of three fundamental elements which personify a feminist legal theory. These are: a) asking the woman question, i.e. the extent of the presence and recognition of womens experience in law; b) feminist practical reasoning, meaning a reasoning which proceeds from context and values difference and the experience of the unempowered; and c) consciousness raising, meaning an exploration of the collective experience of women through a sharing of individual experiences.9 These three elements, outlined above by Katherine T. Bartlett, are designed to act as the source for future feminist legal theory development, particularly in respect of womens outlook upon law with the intention of improving womens legal position in the future development or redevelopment of law.10 The legal evolution, or, redevelopment, mentioned above is one in which women strive to see a revolution from an inherently male legal mindset implicitly discriminating against women because it is framed in terms of male experience which does not necessarily relate to that of women.11 That is to say, that in numerous situations women are expected to mirror full-time, long-term and unionised male workers, when in reality women digress from this norm insofar as their working patterns tend to be far more interrupted and part-time. From this a clear paradox is produced, as feminists while thriving to be treated as the males equal simultaneously require a variant from this norm in order to account for their differing responsibilities. This attitude is stressed distinctly by the remarks of Joanne Conaghan and Louise Chudleigh, when they say, labour law both embodies and conceals the gender division of labour and, by focusing exclusively on the world of paid work, ignores the differing responsibilities [of] men and women.12 Such inadequacies within the legal system are numerous and ironically even legal structures that aim to eradicate gender discrimination can be seen to be based upon analogies created from irrelevant, and sometimes outdated, male experience. An unmistakable example of this is the treatment of maternity leave as analogous to the sick leave of their male counterpart. This is coupled by the notion that parenting is predominantly the females role, which is highlighted by the very limited provisions for paternity leave. 13 The underlying problem here is that, in order to be treated fairly and without any prejudice women are required to meet a norm set by existing male experiences which by there very nature do not create a balanced equality, and thus existing legal standards and concepts disadvantage women14 as they merely incorporate women into existing male-orientated legal structures, rather than recreating the legal structures so as to be established upon male and female requirements. The above mentioned relationship between female legal theory and critical legal studies creates a clear enhancement, in regards to political knowledge and understanding of feminists legal argument, and consequently for the female legal theory. The noticeable thing to emphasise from this is the disadvantaging effect of concealed and frequently unrealised bias in a legal order which has for the most part developed from male rather than female experience,15 and has therefore produced a rather lopsided legal system in favour of men. This prejudice has now been identified, thanks to the relationship between critical legal studies and feminist legal theory, this identification can be perceived as a significant legal stepping stone towards a legal system that not only incorporates females, but is instead founded upon female and male experiences resulting in an equality which is not merely all encompassing in terms of a male perspective, but rather an equality that is derived from the experi ences of both genders. Strongly contrasting the accommodating nature of critical legal studies in relation to female legal theories, are those theories of law and society created by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Their creation, Marxism, a derivative of a much older proposition by Immanuel Kant that stated that, every thesis has a contrary antithesis16 and that eventual resolution of these two contradictory perspectives, through revolution, would end up creating an absolute understanding. This led to Marx placing specific importance upon an economic foundation from which all things within society, both social and political, are merely superstructure. It is for this reason that Marxism has been described as being a distinctly materialistic theory. A strong contrast can be seen between the feminist legal theory, which bases its social beliefs at the apex of its legal structure, and the Marxist theory which states that social understanding is seen as an ideological perception of the economic relations existing at a given time which will change as the underlying economic relationships alter.17 Here it is clear that a Marxist approach would place very little emphasis upon the social question of gender inequality, but would instead focus upon an economic foundation with the speculation that if a high enough proportion of society feel a need to increase gender equality then a revolution would take place. For Marxism social revolution appears to be the basis for the theory to develop. It would therefore appear to be a theory that shows little appreciation for social needs, such as those displayed by the female legal theory. For feminists to advance their legal theory through a Marxist approach, the attitude of socialist feminists, as discussed above, would have to be adopted. That is to say that the bourgeois family must be restructured to end domestic slavery in favour of some collective means of carrying out housework and childcare. The key to this goal, in turn, is a socialist revolution that creates a state-centred economy operating to meet the needs of all. Such a basic transformation of society requires that women and men pursue their personal liberation together, rather than individually, as liberal feminists maintain.18 This once again highlights the idea of a union between both genders, encompassing experiences from both so as to enable females not only to be incorporated into an existing legal structure but instead to recreate a legal structure based upon the needs and experiences of both genders. A legal theory that promotes the liberating philosophy required in order to create a society able to accept the alterations needed to adequately unify both genders in a legal sense is the postmodern legal theory. This theory, commonly portrayed as a recipe for relativism,19 also displays the characteristics needed in order to force individuals to confront and change the rigid contexts and structures (including laws) within which they have arbitrarily confined themselves.20 In this sense it is the ideal method for women to promote and execute the installation of their female legal theory. As it would not only tolerate an amendment in the law to integrate women into existing law, but more than this it would allow them to change the rigid contexts and structures mentioned above, which have prevented the advancement of gender equality within the legal structure. However, postmodernism also raises some problems in relation to feminist jurisprudence. Hilaire Barnett states that there must be developed critiques which reject the universalist, foundationalist, philosophical and political understanding offered by modernismand in its place there exists diversity, plurality, competing rationalities, competing perspectives and uncertainty as to the potentiality of theory.21 In general, here she is saying that women must resist generalising their condition within society, and instead focus upon the multiplicity of subjectivities, identities, which inhere in the individual.22 Overall, I believe feminism to be undoubtedly fundamental in some way. The critical legal theory discussed above shows how society has failed to display mutuality, not only towards women as members of society but towards men and women, through an improper discriminatory selectivity, generate alienation and, ultimately, disfunctionality in the working of a legal order.23 This inequality has led to the recognition of three fundamental elements which personify a feminist legal theory. Resistance is however, met by a Marxist legal theory, which displays very little appreciation of gender issues. However, a feminist theory could be adopted through the Marxist bourgeois revolutionary approach, which would see both genders uniting in a revolution to change the pre-adopted norms of society. This idea of changing preconceived rules and laws within society would allow a feminist legal theory to develop, an idea given weight to by the postmodern legal theory, which also places special emphasis upon withdrawing from a united generalisation of women and instead focusing upon them as individuals. Therefore, I would argue that feminism can be thought of as a theory of law, albeit not on the same scale as other theories previously mentioned, such as Marxism. But its rapid evolution and recent political and legal enhancement within society makes it a theory with considerable weight, and certainly a theory fundamental in some way. 1 Textbook on Jurisprudence Hilaire McCoubrey and Nigel D. White 2 Textbook on Jurisprudence Hilaire McCoubrey and Nigel D. White 3 Sociology A Global Introduction John J. Macionis and Ken Plummer 4 Sociology A Global Introduction John J. Macionis and Ken Plummer 5 Resisting Patriarchy: The Womens Movement and Feminism 6 Textbook on Jurisprudence Hilaire McCoubrey and Nigel D. White 7 Dworkin, Which Dworkin? Taking Feminism Seriously in P. Fitzpatrick and A. Hunt, eds., Critical Legal Studies (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1987), p.47.) 8 Textbook on Jurisprudence Hilaire McCoubrey and Nigel D. White 9 Katherine T. Bartlett, Feminist Legal Method (1970) 103 Harv L Rev, 829 10 Katherine T. Bartlett, Feminist Legal Method (1970) 103 Harv L Rev, 829 11 Textbook on Jurisprudence Hilaire McCoubrey and Nigel D. White 12 Women in Confinement: Can Labour Law Deliver the Goods? In Critical Legal Studies, p. 133 at p. 137. 13 Textbook on Jurisprudence Hilaire McCoubrey and Nigel D. White 14 Feminist Legal Methods (1970) 103 Harv L Rev , p.829 at p.837. 15 Textbook on Jurisprudence Hilaire McCoubrey and Nigel D. White 16 Textbook on Jurisprudence Hilaire McCoubrey and Nigel D. White 17 Textbook on Jurisprudence Hilaire McCoubrey and Nigel D. White 18 Sociology A Global Introduction John J. Macionis and Ken Plummer 19 Textbook on Jurisprudence Hilaire McCoubrey and Nigel D. White 20 Textbook on Jurisprudence Hilaire McCoubrey and Nigel D. White 21 H. Barnett, Introduction to Feminist Theory (London: Cavendish Publishers, 1998, p. 180. 22 H. Barnett Introduction to Feminist Jurisprudence, pp. 1179-80 23 Textbook on Jurisprudence Hilaire McCoubrey and Nigel D. White

Effectiveness of CSR in Achieving Sustainable Development

Effectiveness of CSR in Achieving Sustainable Development CHAPTER I 1. Introduction Corporate social responsibility (CSR) is a concept that has acquired a new character in the global economy. â€Å"With the advent of globalization, managers in different contexts have been exposed to the notion of CSR and are being pressured to adopt CSR initiatives† (Jamali and Sidani, 2008; 330). Therefore, even more corporations are increasing conscience about the importance of matching their own interests and the interests of society by taking responsibility for the impact of their activities on employees, suppliers, customers, communities and other stakeholders as well as the environment. Although, this is an obligation that goes beyond economics or law, and in which companies have to act ahead in pursuing long term goals that can also be good for the society and the environment as a whole. Intrinsically related to the topic of CSR is the protection of the environment for future generations through Sustainable actions. Not only because there has been an enormous technological progress that means we are not as much dependent as decades ago of a wide range of natural resources such as air, energy, land, and minerals. On the contrary, driven by the growth of the population and the hectic globalization, competition for those natural resources has been intense. As a result, this competition also brought a powerful driver for both environmental conflicts and damage to our fragile, life-supporting environment. A range of environmental disasters, such as climate change, ozone layer depletion, and soil contamination, have been occurring along the past decades and which turned organizations and society more aware of practice such as recycling, energy consumption, preservation, among others. â€Å"Evolving from an attitude of simply reacting to such disasters and their effects on the physical environment, corporate concerns now include strategic planning and looking at the environment in its multiple social, cultural, political, and institutional dimensions† (Enriquez and Drummond, 2007; 75). Therefore, the instruments of corporative citizenship turned also to the preservation of the environment as a strategic element for enterprises in the whole world. Along with the development for part of the organizations of clean technologies, there is also the concern in getting a green image, which put organizations’ sustainable activities into practice calling for an Ecobusiness. Especially in the past two years, 2008 and 2009, the world was marked by a financial crisis that had an impact in economies of organizations in general. Nevertheless, the financial crisis is not causing firms or governments to abandon sustainable development. In fact, many business and government suggest that a ‘green solution’ can be found to both economic and ecological challenges, creating new jobs and markets by investing in new forms of energy, redesigning or retrofitting buildings and equipment, and managing forests and other ecosystems sustainably. Mineral industries, for example, are using the actual crisis on their own benefit, attempting to identify domains where actions are required and trying to shape a different future to this industry, taking advantage of the actual scenario. To achieve that they make use of available data and information to appreciate the mining sector’s impact, giving support to decision makers in their strategic choices. The actions of Alcoa Inc., for example, are impressive and unique, the company interplays among intangibles as leadership and innovation as well as a strong CSR strategy, wisingly aligning society, workplace and environment, productivity, and financial performance in the context of a traditional manufacturing company. This project research examines the existing literature in an attempt to create a more comprehensive perspective of what has been written about the topic of Corporate Social Responsibility and Sustainable Development. The project’s approach was qualitative in nature and focused on discovering what researchers and authors have explored and understand about this complex subject. Besides, it looks at some of the principal favourable and unfavourable arguments to the social responsibility of enterprises, especially when they are being considered by multinational enterprises interested in initiating activities into developing countries, with focus into Brazil. We also propose some alternatives of acting in the area of Social Responsibility made by Alcoa Inc., considering the current Brazilian reality, with the aim of achieving Sustainable Development. This dissertation is divided in two parts. Part one will be based in secondary data and involves: Chapter II, which comprises the literature review that examines existent work in current trends involving the subject of CSR as well as paradigms as SD in order to help establish what values associated indicators could contain. Chapter III, the explanation of the methodology used along the development of the project. Part two, comprises Chapter IV, which examines factors involving Alcoa Inc., taking into account its current CSR and SD actions and strategies, making use of a questionnaire, answered by some of the organization’s managers, in relation to the issues encountered in the literature. Chapter V, will draw conclusions, make future recommendations and points out gaps for future research. 1.2 Research Title The Effectiveness of Corporate Social Responsibility as a means of achieving Sustainable Development: a case study of Alcoa Incorporation. 1.3 Research Background In the modern complex and dynamic business environment, most organizations are adopting a global attitude making sure that they are geared for being global. Furthermore, it is common knowledge that the world is constantly developing and changing and no change is permanent because any change is about to be further adjusted in the short or long run to suit the environment and the challenges they face. Organizations are now more powerful and have more influence in the society. Therefore, â€Å"The notion of corporate social responsibility today functions as an emblem, that the company themselves rise towards a consensual â€Å"social revolution† that will eventually benefit all the stakeholders of our society† (Habish et al, 2005; 271). Corporate social responsibility intrinsically relates to environmental issues faced globally, especially in the early stages of the twenty-first century and sustaining in a particular industry has become very difficult task for many businesses. â€Å"Employees, investors and consumers are becoming increasingly more aware of the social and environmental impact to people and planet that a company produces, which are both positive and negative. As consumers become even more aware of sustainable practices, there will be even greater demands for business communities to do the right thing, requiring enhanced ethical leadership and CSR to drive profits, and brand loyalty† (Mamic, 2004; Leffel, Sweeney, 2007 cited by Maass, 2007; 36) Alcoa is â€Å"the worlds leading producer and manager of primary aluminium, fabricated aluminium, and alumina facilities. In the framework of sustainability, Alcoa is considered one of the top three companies in the world in terms of commitment to sustainable development and has made use of an environmental strategy associated with a truthful social responsibility in order to gain competitive advantage and success in the marketplace. For example, for three years the Company has been sponsoring the Internethos program, directed at the development of Corporate Social Responsibility for Sustainability (www.alcoa.com). Moreover, â€Å"Recognition from the Covalence Ethical Ranking drives the company to intensify actions of engagement of strategic publics. In 2006, the company was indicated as world leader in ethics, in the mining and metallurgical Industry, according to Covalence Ethical Ranking† (Alcoa annual report, 2006/2007; 41) 1.4 Research Aims Analyse how corporate social responsibility can ensure competitive advantage and success in achieving sustainable development. To explore, analyze and identify the use of environmental strategy as a tool of achieving global success. Analyse the importance of achieving sustainable development in today’s global environment. 1.5 Research Objectives To evaluate, in an environmental perspective, the effectiveness of corporate social responsibility in today’s global business. To evaluate, in an environmental perspective, the effectiveness of corporate social responsibility on achieving sustainability. To establish the feasibility of using corporate social responsibility within the industry to align strategic planning with sustainable development. To analyse and find out the implications of corporate social responsibility in Alcoa’s Inc. environmental management. To identify the extent to which the environmental management is involved in strategic planning at Alcoa Inc. To identify how important is environmental sensitivity to a company that extracts natural resources. To analyse in depth the integration of sustainability to Alcoa’s overall business giving emphasis to Brazil. To investigate practices used by Alcoa Inc. in its implementation of corporate social responsibility as a means of achieving sustainable development. 1.6 Rationale of the project The objective of this project was to gather information that could be useful and benefit different organizations in engaging in environmental strategies by the concept of corporate social responsibility. Moreover, data collected can also guide corporations by providing them with an understanding of sustainable development and the resources they can make use of to establish a sustainable future for society and the environment. The information gathered for this present work was collected through an extensive literature review as well as the use of different sources of information, such as videos. In addition, a questionnaire was used in order to collect insight information on the organization’s management perspectives and its corporate social responsibility strategies for a sustainable development and prosperous business. CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction Social Responsibility actions are examples of a phenomenon of great proportions, which have been taken into more consideration in the business world, and reflect a new world-wide configuration. Historical recent events, in special environmental catastrophes around the globe, developed the academic discussion on the social paper of organizations, public and private, in the construction of the called sustainable development. Investors originated from richest countries have been realizing that economical survival and social balance is a long-term phenomenon more and more dependent of a constant preoccupation with levels of development of the least favoured areas of the globe (Parker, 1998). In the context of globalization, Social Responsibility has started to be understood as an essential instrument to be considered by organizations’ strategists in the sense of paying attention to the social demands of several economical agents involved. Apart from the internationalization strategy adopted, multinational enterprises installed in developing countries are under pressure in adopting an ethical and responsible posture. Meantime, many actions carried out by multinational enterprises, through their own foundations or partnerships with local agencies, have been questioned for disregarding the participation of local actors in the decision processes, in the resource allocation and in the evaluation of results. 2.2 Business Ethics and Corporate Social Responsibility â€Å"Some vigorous critics and Marxists tend to dismiss the link between business and ethics† (Shaw, 2009; 2). For example, â€Å"It was widely assumed that business and ethics were radically different and that ethical behaviour had little or no return on investment† (Brenkert, 2004; 188). However, on current days, ethical issues are being one of the most important subjects concerning organizations across the world, which now view business ethics not only in terms of administrative compliance with legal standards, rules or regulations as they used to do in the past. Some corporations are even creating their own written and formal ethical codes in addition with the use of different systems, like corporate social responsibility, to help them to create and maintain an ethical organization culture. Accordingly, Shaw affirms, â€Å"Business ethics thus involves studying the ways to refine and reinforce the implicit norms of the business system† (Shaw, 2009; 3). Nevertheless, Corporate Social Responsibility is topic of great value in business ethics, as reinforced by Ghauri and Cateora (2006; 468): â€Å"Ethics and social responsibility go hand in hand†. Organizations are increasing conscience about the importance of matching their own interests and the interests of society by taking responsibility for the impact of their activities on employees, suppliers, customers, communities and other stakeholders as well as the environment. Kotler and Lee (2005; 161) argue, â€Å"The first ethical duty of business is to do not harm. Companies are responsible for minimizing stakeholder’s risks. This is the heart of business ethics.† In fact, when ethical issues come to the organization field, a question is raised: â€Å"Of all these stakeholders, which should or will have the most or least influence over the ‘ethical’ rules that will be applied by the organization?† (Buhalis and Laws, 2001; 88) Despite of all the suggestions given in relation to CSR and business ethics, Jones et al (2005; 19) points out the fact â€Å"†¦ whether business ethics will actually make business more ethical.† In a current globalized environment, companies play an important role in the social structure and more than ever before, are being encouraged to improve their business practices by emphasizing ethical behaviour, not only through the development of new technologies but also through social and environmental initiatives. Companies are increasingly being held accountable for their actions, especially with the growth in demand for higher standards of corporate social responsibility. Sims (2003; 8) links the concept of ethics and social responsibility saying that: â€Å"Being socially responsible, ethical, and a good corporate citizen is important to meeting and exceeding the expectations for any organization’s stakeholders†. And affirms: â€Å"Organizational management that truly cares about business and corporate social responsibility is proactive rather than reactive in linking strategic action and ethics†. The structure of society has changed due to globalization changes, and the importance of businesses impact in society forced organizations to rethink their actions towards profitability, also promoting the development of concepts like sustainability. Nisberg (1988; 43 cited by Kilcullen and Kooistra, 1999; 158) gives an important definition of business ethics, which according to the author â€Å"can be defined as a set of principles that guides business practices to reflect a concern for society as a whole while pursuing profits†. However, with the relentless pursuit of profit in this actual globalized situation, how to maximise profit and act as an ethical company at the same time? A good understanding of what exactly is the term Corporate Social Responsibility is essential in order to answer and explain this question through different perspectives and theories. 2.3 History and Definitions of Corporate Social Responsibility The history of Corporate Social Responsibility can be compared as being as old as the history of business; however, its concept has not been fully formulated until now (Asongu, 2007; 28; Crane et al, 2008). May et al (2007; 4) also adds â€Å"Questions regarding the nature, scope and impact of organizations have been present into various forms for centuries ranging across the ‘classical’, ‘medieval’, ‘mercantile’, ‘industrial’ and ‘corporate eras’†. Taking into consideration only the period after the Industrial Revolution, or better saying the 20th century, the first author who directly contributed to the responsibility issue was Clark (1916; 210 cited by Secchi, 2007; 351) when he affirmed that â€Å"The old idea of free will is giving way to determinism, individualism to public control, personal responsibility to social responsibility.† During the period of 1930s and 1940s, called as the ‘corporate period’ references about social responsibility can be found, for example: Chester Barnard’s, ‘The functions of the Executive’ (1938) and Theodore Kreps’s ‘Measurement of the social performance of business’ (1940). (Crane et al, 2008). Murphy (cited by Crane et al, 2008), on the other hand classified Corporate Social Responsibility in four eras as follows: Philanthropic era (up to 1950s), awareness era (1953 to 1967), issue era (1968 to 1973) and awareness era (1974 until now). According to Secchi (2007; 348), however, â€Å"One of the first attempts at classifying theories on CSR (business and society issues) was made by Preston (1975).† This shows that the concept of CSR has been discussed for long but in fact, has not yet been fully understood and placed among organizations. Recently, empirical research about Corporate Social Responsibility and its relation to Corporate Social Performance and Sustainability provokes many contradictions in the literature. Due especially to the occurrence of different scandals among enterprises as well as the movement towards an environmentalist society rather than materialist, competitive labour market and shrinking role of government, there were a rise of interest in Corporate Social Responsibility in the past decades (Carrasco and Yakovleva, 2007; 15-16). Many authors affirm that business and society are interrelated entities rather than being distinctively separated (Kotler, 2005; Wood, 1991 cited by Moir, 2001). According to Watts et al (1998; 3 cited by Yakovleva, 2005; 12) â€Å"Corporate Social Responsibility is the continuing commitment by business to behave ethically and contribute to economic development while improving the quality of life of the workforce and their families as well of the local community and society at large†. Corporate Social Responsibility, thus, reflect the responsibility or accountability of organizations in pro not only of its stakeholders but also of its surrounding environment, taking into consideration the various practices that can affect those. Carroll (1979), on the other hand, proposed a four-layered concept, which was the most accepted model, suggesting four corporations’ responsibilities related to their economical, legal ethical and philanthropic aspects. All those four aspects are of great meaning to the CSR concept, however, our current work focuses more on the top of the pyramid, which encompasses the philanthropic responsibilities. â€Å"Philanthropic responsibility: Interest in doing good for society, regardless of its impact on the bottom line is what is called altruistic, humanitarian or philanthropic CSR. â€Å"giving back† time and money in the forms of voluntary service, voluntary association and voluntary giving – is where most of the controversy over the legitimacy of CSR lies† (Shahin and Zairi, 2007; 755) According to Carroll, the philanthropic responsibilities are discretionary being, therefore, less important than the other categories; on the other hand, as said before, is the one that brings the most controversial issues. The definition proposed by Gauri and Cateora (2005) follows the same idea, where the role of a company in the society goes beyond its economic goals. As we can see, definitions relating CSR are various and contradictory among the literature which makes its study more exciting. 2.4 Corporate Governance and Corporate Social Responsibility Governance is defined by Dam et al (2007; 1333) as â€Å"the set of informal arrangements that are used in handling the consequences of these unforeseen states of the world†. As a result of globalization, different global governance structures have emerged, transforming the CSR concept more difficult to be understood. This new global governance brought about the participation by firms in tasks that used to be the government’s domain. (Cutler et al., 1999; Scholte, 2001 cited by Albareda, 2008). Corporate Social Responsibility, therefore, â€Å"can be seen as a new governance arena† (Haufler, 1999; Scholte, 2001 cited by Albareda, 2008; 434). Castka et al (2004 cited by Shahin and Zairi, 2007; 761) proposed a useful framework, based on three major assumptions: â€Å"(1) The CSR framework should be integrated into business systems, objectives, targets, and performance measures. (2) The governance system, whose purpose is to control, provide resources, opportunities, strategic direction of the organisation and be held responsible for doing so, is an integral part of business hence CSR system. (3) Central to the CSR framework is the transformation of stakeholders’ needs and expectation into business strategy, where the organisation has to balance the need for CSR from their key stakeholders with entrepreneurship.† Corporate Social Responsibility is considered deliberate governance, however, influenced directly or indirectly by demands from global civil society, Non Government Organizations, or even the government itself. Thus, Corporate Social Responsibility plays a major role in the global economic and political activities of corporations. â€Å"To exercise this political power in international society, companies as private authorities have adopted different mechanisms. The most important of these have been inter-firm cooperative instruments, fundamentally through the creation of CSR business associations† (Albareda, 2008; 434). The implications of poor corporate governance for people’s lives are tremendous, either in a developed or in a developing country, like Brazil for instance. Most of the Brazilian corporations are still dominated by a family-owned management, who are therefore, the main, if not the only shareholders of the company. This fact can interfere severely in the potential of corporate governance. â€Å"Brazil is a country with strong authoritarian traditions, and inadequate corporate governance laws make it possible to perpetuate authoritarian and concentrated influence over governance structures† (Oman, 2003; 35). Nevertheless, especially in the past decades, there has been intensification of businesses in relation to governance and sustainability in countries like Brazil. Paro and Boechat (2008; 533-534) illustrate it: â€Å"One of the most significant Brazilian non-governmental organizations with the specific mission to mobilize companies around this issue – the Ethos Institute of Business and Social Responsibility, founded in 1998 – had 1,266 member companies in November 2007. Around 74 Brazilian companies have published reports based on the Global Reporting Initiative guidelines (GRI, 2007), and the Sao Paulo Stock Exchange (Bovespa) launched in 2005 its own Corporate Sustainability Index (ISE), which now has 32 companies listed†. Well-managed corporate governance can have positive effects on socio-economic development; it also hence sustained productivity growth and reforms on regulatory practices, although its benefits cannot be taken into consideration without strengthening the examination of business practices and the government environment as a whole. 2.5 Building Corporate Social Responsibility into Strategy Corporate and business strategy according to Foss (1997) has different meanings in relation to the kind of decisions to be made. The first relates to decisions that determines the company’s goals and objectives, the latter though, determines how the company will position itself in relation to its competitors, defining its business and resources. McManus (2008; 1069) affirms: â€Å"The term strategy is derived from the Greek Strategia or generalship, sometimes translated as the art of war. The metaphor of business as war, a competition to be won, is pervasive.† The first author who actually exposed the link between strategy and Corporate Social Responsibility was Michael Porter. He argues that â€Å"corporate social responsibility can be a source of innovation and competitive advantage if incorporated into the framework of analysis that companies use to guide their business strategy† (Porter and Kramer, 2006 cited by McManus, 2008; 1077). Corporations have now added value-creation to their core business always considering its stakeholders’ needs to develop a strategy that is going to keep the company in a competitive advantage position. This is what drives a company to strive in management initiatives, especially if those initiatives are driven towards the achievement of sustainable development. Lee (2008, cited by McManus, 2008; 1075) argues, â€Å"There has been an evolution in CSR from the macro-societal level to the organizational level, with a greater emphasis on managerial, strategic, and ultimately financial issues to the point that the key issue in 2008 is how to integrate CSR into one’s core business.† Organizations integrated to societal aspects are trying to be aware of the implications of the environment they are in and building, therefore, its strategy based in a social/environmental mission and vision. On the other hand, â€Å"recent reports reveal that almost six out of ten organizations have no strategy for CSR while many companies are unclear as to how to adequately anticipate which social issues will affect their overall strategy† (The Work Foundation, 2002; McKinsey and Company, 2006 cited by Galbreath, 2009; 109) The importance of keeping the integration of a company’s core business and its strategy according to the society’s (stakeholders) needs determine the effectiveness of a business and its position in the marketplace. Galbreath (2009; 122) also draws a model of corporate strategy in relation to the society as follows: [image] Figure 2 Source: Strategy in the context of society (Galbreath, 2009; 122). Not only the strategy itself, but also a change on the decision-making framework plays an important role. The use of the classical American pragmatic decision-making is one example. â€Å"The use of pragmatic decision making would inherently lead to the consideration of ecological issues within the decision-making process while fostering competitive advantage† (York, 2009; 102) In conclusion, as McManus (2008; 1068) says, â€Å"Perhaps, the greatest contribution of the mash-up CSR and business strategy will be, not in the details of particular approaches to its realization, but rather the change in consciousness of individual business people its emergence may signal.† 2.6 Leadership and Corporate Social Responsibility The first important point in the leadership context is to understand that ethics is not something we born with. Many authors say that along the years we are taught by the community conventions, norms, and regulations that guide our ethical behaviours (Trevinâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¢o and Nelson, 2004). The same occurs with an organization, where norms, regulations, and values are drawn along the years, guiding their employees and creating its culture, but in this case, the founder has a crucial position, being the one who first underlie most of the organization’s ethics code. Another important issue consists in how hierarchy of power is distributed in the organization; this is explained because the flow of integrity and moral actions always comes from the top to the bottom of the organization hierarchy and this explains why the founder plays a key role in creating the culture and guiding decisions. This relates to the called learning theory, where leaders are perceived as role models. (Hind et al, 2009) Daboub et al (1995 cited by Hind et al, 2009; 8) â€Å"developed a model which suggested a relationship between the characteristics of an organization’s top management team and corporate irresponsibility, even criminality. The model holds that, other variables being equal, the greater the proliferation of formal management qualifications (e.g. MBA’s) in a top management team, the higher the chances of corporate criminality. The implication of this is that management educators do not seem to be addressing the current and future developmental needs of managers who are required to respond to changing social norms for higher ethical, accountable, and sustainable standards in business.† 2.7 Voluntarism and Accountability of Companies There are two contradicting views in the role of voluntarism in CSR: The first view is supported by Carrol and Buchholtz, (1999 cited by Yakovleva, 2005; 14) and suggests that â€Å"CSR refers to both types of corporate operations: operations towards compliance with legislation requirements and voluntary operations towards social benefit not stipulated by law or economic requirements†. The second view, however, suggests that the firm itself should call for the stakeholder’s interest voluntarily and â€Å"considers that CSR starts when law ends† (Yakovleva, 2005; 14). All those contradictions are part of the inconsistency in defining the term CSR. Corporate Social Responsibility according to Keinert (2008) is concerned to how corporations tackle external pressures responding to them accordingly. Moreover, she adds â€Å"It does not question the ‘rightness’ of social expectations from an ethical, theoretical point of view, but seeks way of implementing them† (Keinert 2008; 45) Apart from this point of view, corporations are responsible, nowadays, alongside the government, to the interests of its employees and society as a whole being also accountable for its actions. Thus, accountability is another important feature of Corporate Social Responsibility. Zadek (2007; 10) argues: embracing accountability for their actions, corporations â€Å"contribute to addressing societal needs and challenges in ways that could also deliver economic value and success.† According to the IPEA (Instituto de Pesquisa Econà ´mica Aplicada), â€Å"Social Accountability 8000 is the first norm turned to the improvement of the conditions of work, including the principal labour rights and certifying the fulfilment through independent auditors. The Social Accountability International LEAVES-, a non-government organization created in 1997 in USA, developed it and which has its action turned to the preoccupation of the consumers for the conditions of work in the world. The norm follows the standard of the ISO 9000 and of the ISO 14000, which makes its introduction easier for enterprises that already know this system†Ã¢â‚¬  (www.ipea.gov.br). â€Å"One of the basic propositions from social accountability favourable to the contemporary point of view is based on Keith Davis’ ideas† (apud Certo Peter, 1993; 281 cited by Souza, 2004; 31). According to them, â€Å"enterprises must operate as an opened system with two hands, with information reception from society and opened advertisement about their operations with the public.† (Souza, 2004; 31) In agreement with this proposition, the enterprise must be disposed to hearing the society and working in the construction of its well-being. 2.8 Corporate Social Responsibility and Profitability Whilst some authors defend Social Responsibility as a solution for organizations and society’s sustainability issues in the long-term, others are emphatic, affirming that it is not reasonable to imagine that the

Analysis of the Jurors in 12 Angry Men :: Twelve Angry Men, Reginald Rose

Guilty or not guilty? This the key question during the murder trial of a young man accused of fatally stabbing his father. The play 12 Angry Men, by Reginald Rose, introduces to the audience twelve members of a jury made up of contrasting men from various backgrounds. One of the most critical elements of the play is how the personalities and experiences of these men influence their initial majority vote of guilty. Three of the most influential members include juror #3, juror #10, and juror #11. Their past experiences and personal bias determine their thoughts and opinions on the case. Therefore, how a person feels inside is reflected in his/her thoughts, opinions, and behavior. Juror #3 is very biased against the 19-year-old boy that is being tried, and this affects all of his thoughts and actions regarding the case. He has this bias because his own son hit him in the jaw and ran away from home at the age of 15: â€Å"I’ve got a kid†¦when he was fifteen he hit me in the face†¦I haven’t seen him in three years. Rotten kid! I hate tough kids! You work your heart out [but it’s no use] (21).†According to this quote from the text, this juror condemns all teenagers and feels resentment towards them. He especially feels strongly about the boy being tried, because the boy grew up in the slums, and this juror is also biased against these people who grew up there. It is because of these feelings that he is strongly cemented in his vote of guilty. Juror #10, a garage owner, segregates and divides the world stereotypically into ‘us’ and ‘them.’ ‘Us’ being people living around the rich or middle-class areas, and ‘them’ being people of a different race, or possessing a contrasting skin color, born and raised in the slums (poorer parts of town). It is because of this that he has a bias against the young man on trial, for the young man was born in the slums and was victim to domestic violence since the age of 5. Also, the boy is of a Hispanic descent and is of a different race than this juror, making him fall under the juror’s discriminatory description of a criminal. This is proven on when juror #10 rants: â€Å"They don’t need any real big reason to kill someone, either. You know, they get drunk, and bang, someone’s lying in the gutter†¦ most of them, it’s like they have no feelings (59).

Abortion Clinics Must Remain Open :: Argumentative Persuasive Topics

Abortion Clinics Must Remain Open    In 1973 the Supreme Court decision known as Roe vs. Wade, made it possible for women to have safe and legal abortions by well-trained professionals. This decision not only gave a woman the right to choose, but it drastically decreased pregnancy-related injury and death. Now the policy proposal has been made to close abortion clinics, thus making it virtually impossible for a woman to receive an abortion. Although this proposal's stated goal is to close the clinics, its hidden goal is to outlaw abortion altogether. It is very clear that abortions cannot be performed if there is no legal place to perform them. With abortion clinics closed, a women's right to choose is taken away. In order for women's right to choose to remain available, the abortion clinics need to remain open.    Closing abortion clinics makes it impossible for a lot of women to have an abortion. Whether or not to have the abortion should be the women's right, but when there are no providers of abortion around, the choice has already been made for her. Closing up the clinics higher the barriers of having an abortion. When the barriers get too high, this means for some women, the right to make their own choices in life is taken away. A women's life is her life, and she should be able to make the choices that will effect it. Up until 1973, abortions were illegal. Punishment of abortion did not greatly reduce the number of women who sought it. Between 1880 and 1973 thousands of women died and/or suffered medical problems after attempting to self-induce an abortion, or after going to an untrained professional who preformed cheap and unsanitary abortions. Women will continue to attempt and succeed in ending unwanted pregnancies. With this, a lot of women will risk their health and life doing so. W ith abortion clinics still available, women who do choose to have an abortion will at least do it in a safe and clean way. A woman should not have to put her life in danger in order to receive and abortion.    With local abortion clinics closed demand will stay the same but availability will be rapidly decreased. Thus women will have to wait longer to receive an abortion and get treated later in her pregnancy. Medical experts say that the longer a women waits to have an abortion, the higher the risk of health problems associated with that abortion.

Terms Defined :: essays papers

Terms Defined Before plummeting into the depth of this paper, several phrases and terms need to be clarified. When discussing computers they should be thought of as â€Å"devices that solve problems by accepting information, performing prescribed operations, and supplying the results obtained.† Computer usage refers to utilizing the piece of technology to solve problems. Another important fact to remember is that computer games are played on the machine for either instruction or entertainment. For the sake of clarity, computer programs and computer games are used interchangeably and deemed as synonymous phrases within this paper. The computer revolution refers to the incorporation of computers into everyday use. Having clear definitions of these phrases will help the reader better comprehend the assertions being presented (â€Å"Ebsco,† 2004). Gender Bias in Computer Games and Programs One of the first factors thought to contribute to this growing problem presented above is the fact that computer games and programs are rarely generated with females in mind. The way in which games and programs are designed can be a huge deciding factor in whether the girl will take the time to explore a particular program or not. According to a study sponsored by the much acclaimed American Association of University Women, â€Å"The commission noted that most computer games today are designed by men for men. They often have subject matter of interest to boys, or feature styles of interaction known to be comfortable for boys† (â€Å"Tech Savvy,† 2000, p.29). In her book entitled Does Jane Compute, Roberta Furger (1998) interviewed a ten year old, self-proclaimed conossuier of computers named Rachel. This precocious ten year old has her own web page and likes to make cards and invitations on her very own Macintosh. Sadly, Rachel has experienced first hand the discr epancy experts have been warning about. She too explains how there are very few games for girls when she stated, â€Å"There are only men in a lot of games-and there are not bright colors. It’s all droopy† (1998, p.44). Children Now, an organization working for the betterment of children everywhere, recently stated that many computer games popular among boys have been marketed to girls by simply changing one aspect of the game’s general design or aesthetics. Take for example, Pac-Man. The creators of this game simply put a pink bow on the original creature to try to lure in the female population (â€Å"Girls and Gaming,† 2000).

The Hunters: Moonsong Chapter Four

â€Å"Trust Bonnie to meet a cute guy on her first day at col ege,† Elena said. She careful y drew the nail-polish brush over Meredith's toenail, painting it a tannish pink. They'd spent the evening at freshman orientation with the rest of their dormmates, and now al they wanted to do was relax. â€Å"Are you sure this is the color it's supposed to be?† Elena asked Meredith. â€Å"It doesn't look like a summer sunset to me.† â€Å"I like it,† Meredith said, wiggling her toes. â€Å"Careful! I don't want polish on my new bedspread,† Elena warned. â€Å"Zander is just gorgeous,† Bonnie said, stretching out luxuriously on her own bed on the other side of the room. â€Å"Wait til you meet him.† Meredith smiled at Bonnie. â€Å"Isn't it an amazing feeling? When you've just met somebody and you feel like there's something between you, but you're not quite sure what's going to happen?† She gave an exaggerated sigh, rol ing her eyes up in a mock swoon. â€Å"It's al about the anticipation, and you get a thril just seeing him. I love that first part.† Her tone was light, but there was something lonely in her face. Elena was sure that, as composed and calm as Meredith was, she was already missing Alaric. â€Å"Sure,† Bonnie said amiably. â€Å"It's awesome, but I'd like to get to the next stage for once. I want to have a relationship where we know each other real y Well, a serious boyfriend instead of just a crush. Like you guys have. That's even better, isn't it?† â€Å"I think so,† said Meredith. â€Å"But you shouldn't try to hurry through the we-just-met stuff, because you've only got a limited time to enjoy it. Right, Elena?† Elena dabbed a cotton bal around the edges of Meredith's polished toenails and thought about when she had first met Stefan. With al that had happened since then, it was hard to believe it was only a year ago. What she remembered most was her own determination to have Stefan. No matter what had gotten in her way, she had known with a clear, firm purpose that he would be hers. And then, in those early days, once he was hers, it was glorious. It felt as if the missing piece of herself had slotted into place. â€Å"Right,† she said final y, answering Meredith. â€Å"Afterward, things get more complicated.† At first, Stefan had been a prize that Elena wanted to win: sophisticated and mysterious. He was a prize Caroline wanted, too, and Elena would never let Caroline beat her. But then Stefan had let Elena see the pain and passion, the integrity and nobility, he held inside him and she had forgotten the competition and loved Stefan with her whole heart. And now? She stil loved Stefan with everything she had, and he loved her. But she loved Damon, too, and sometimes she understood him – plotting, manipulative, dangerous Damon – better than she did Stefan. Damon was like her in some ways: he, too, would be relentless in pursuing what he wanted. She and Damon connected, she thought, on some deep core instinctive level that Stefan was too good, too honorable to understand. How could you love two people at the same time? â€Å"Complicated,† Bonnie scoffed. â€Å"More complicated than never being sure if somebody likes you or not? More complicated than having to wait by the phone to see if you have a date for Saturday night or not? I'm ready for complicated. Did you know that forty-nine percent of col ege-educated women meet their future husbands on campus?† â€Å"You made that statistic up,† Meredith said, rising and picking her way toward her own bed, careful not to smudge her polish. Bonnie shrugged. â€Å"Okay, maybe I did. But I bet it's a real y high percentage, anyway. Didn't your parents meet right here, Elena?† â€Å"They did,† Elena said. â€Å"I think they had a class together sophomore year.† â€Å"How romantic,† Bonnie said happily. â€Å"Well, if you get married, you have to meet your future spouse somewhere,† Meredith said. â€Å"And there are a lot of possible future spouses at col ege.† She frowned at the silky cover on her bed. â€Å"Do you think I can dry my nails faster if I use the hair dryer, or wil it mess up the polish? I want to go to sleep.† She examined the hair dryer as if it were the focal point of some science experiment, her face intent. Bonnie was watching her upside down, her head tipped back off the end of the bed and her red curls brushing the floor, tapping her feet energetical y against the wal . Elena felt a great sWellof love for both of them. She remembered the countless sleepovers they'd had al through school, back before their lives had gotten †¦ complicated. â€Å"I love having the three of us together,† she said. â€Å"I hope the whole year is going to be just like this.† That was when they first heard the sirens. Meredith peered through the blinds, col ecting facts, trying to analyze what was going on outside Pruitt House. An ambulance and several police cars were parked across the street, their lights silently blinking red and blue. Floodlights lit the quad a ghastly white, and it was crawling with police officers. â€Å"I think we should go out there,† she said. â€Å"Are you kidding me?† Bonnie asked from behind her. â€Å"Why would we want to do that? I'm in my pajamas.† Meredith glanced back. Bonnie was standing, hands on hips, brown eyes indignant. She was indeed wearing cute ice-cream-cone-printed pajamas. â€Å"Well, quick, put on some jeans,† Meredith said. â€Å"But why?† asked Bonnie plaintively. Meredith's eyes met Elena's across the room, and they nodded briskly to each other. â€Å"Bonnie,† Elena said patiently, â€Å"we have a responsibility to check out everything that's going on around here. We might just want to be normal col ege students, but we know the truth about the world – the truth other people don't realize, about vampires and werewolves and monsters – and we need to make sure that what's going on out there isn't part of that truth. If it's a human problem, the police wil deal with it. But if it's something else, it's our responsibility.† â€Å"Honestly,† grumbled Bonnie, already reaching for her clothes, â€Å"you two have a – a saving-people complex or something. After I take psychology, I'm going to diagnose you.† â€Å"And then we'l be sorry,† Meredith said agreeably. On their way out the door, Meredith grabbed the long velvet case that held her fighting stave. The stave was special, designed to fight both human and supernatural adversaries, and was made to specifications handed down through her family for generations. Only a Sulez could have a staff like this. She caressed it through the case, feeling the sharp spikes of different materials that dotted its ends: silver for werewolves, wood for vampires, white ash for Old Ones, iron for al eldritch creatures, tiny hypodermics to fil with poisons. She knew she couldn't take the stave out of its case on the quad, not surrounded by police officers and innocent bystanders, but she felt stronger when she could feel the weight of it in her hand. Outside, the mugginess of the Virginia September day had given way to a chil y night, and the girls walked quickly toward the crowd around the quad. â€Å"Don't look like we're heading straight over there,† Meredith whispered. â€Å"Pretend we're going to one of the buildings. Like the student center.† She angled off slightly, as if she was heading past the quad, and then led them closer, glancing over at the police tape surrounding the grass, pretending to be surprised by the activity next to them. Elena and Bonnie fol owed her lead, looking around wide-eyed. â€Å"Can I help you ladies?† one of the campus security men asked, stepping forward to block their progress. Elena smiled at him appealingly. â€Å"We were just on our way to the student center, and we saw everyone out here. What's going on?† Meredith craned her head to look past him. Al she could see were groups of police officers talking to one another and more campus security. Some officers were on their hands and knees, searching careful y through the grass. Crime scene analysts, she thought vaguely, wishing she knew more about police procedure than what she'd seen on TV. The security officer stepped sideways to block her view. â€Å"Nothing serious, just a girl who ran into a bit of trouble walking out here alone.† He smiled reassuringly. â€Å"What kind of trouble?† Meredith asked, trying to see for herself. He shifted, blocking her line of sight again. â€Å"Nothing to worry about. Everyone's going to be okay this time.† â€Å"This time?† Bonnie asked, frowning. He cleared his throat. â€Å"You girls just stick together at night, okay? Make sure to walk in pairs or groups when you're out around campus, and you'l be fine. Basic safety stuff, right?† â€Å"But what happened to the girl? Where is she?† Meredith asked. â€Å"Nothing to worry about,† he said, more firmly this time. His eyes were on the black velvet case in Meredith's hand. â€Å"What have you got in there?† â€Å"Pool cue,† she lied. â€Å"We're going to play pool in the student center.† â€Å"Have a good time,† he said, in a tone of voice that was clearly a dismissal. â€Å"We wil ,† Elena said sweetly, her hand on Meredith's arm. Meredith opened her mouth to ask another question, but Elena was pul ing her away from the officer and toward the student center. â€Å"Hey,† Meredith objected quietly, when they were out of earshot. â€Å"I wasn't done asking questions.† â€Å"He wasn't going to tel us anything,† Elena said. Her mouth was a grim straight line. â€Å"I bet a lot more happened than someone getting into a little trouble. Did you see the ambulances?† â€Å"We're not real y going to the student center, are we?† Bonnie asked plaintively. â€Å"I'm too tired.† Meredith shook her head. â€Å"We'd better loop back behind the buildings to our dorm, though. It'l look suspicious if we head right back where we came from.† â€Å"That was creepy, right?† Bonnie said. â€Å"Do you think† – she paused, and Meredith could see her swal ow – â€Å"do you think something real y bad happened?† â€Å"I don't know,† Meredith said. â€Å"He said a girl ran into a little bit of trouble. That could mean anything.† â€Å"Do you think someone attacked her?† Elena asked. Meredith shot her a significant look. â€Å"Maybe,† she said. â€Å"Or maybe something did.† â€Å"I hope not,† Bonnie said, shivering. â€Å"I've had enough somethings to last me forever.† They'd crossed behind the science building, down a darker, lonelier path, and circled back toward their dorm, its brightly lit entryway like a beacon before them. Al three sped up, heading for the light. â€Å"I've got my key,† Bonnie said, feeling in her jeans pocket. She opened the door, and she and Elena hurried into the dorm. Meredith paused and glanced back toward the busy quad, then, past it, at the dark sky above campus. Whatever â€Å"trouble† had happened, and whether the cause was human or something else, she knew she needed to be in top condition, ready to fight. She could almost hear her father's voice saying, â€Å"Fun time is over, Meredith.† It was time to focus on her training again, time to work toward her destiny as a protector, as a Sulez, to keep innocent people safe from the darkness.

Financial Accounting Standards Board Essay

The International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) and the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) are two of the most important bodies of the Accounting/Finance field today. Though both boards work together to develop and enforce financial reporting standards for publicly held organizations, the FASB concentrates on the accounting standards in the United States while the IASB sets its focus on global standards. The rules and standards that are set for individual certified public accountants that practice in the United States are also set by the FASB. By introducing the IASB and FASB into the MSA program, students are able to gain more insight into what businesses are required to report and the progress that the accounting field continues to make. The FASB was established in 1973 after the AICPA had adopted recommendation which were made by the Wheat Committee. The Wheat Committee had recommended that the Accounting Principles Board (APB) be eliminated and that FASB be created. The elimination of the APB and the creation of the FASB meant that the FASB was the board that issued accounting standards. FASB’s structure is as follows: A board of trustees nominated by organizations whose members have special knowledge and interest in financial reporting is selected. The organizations originally chosen to select the trustees were the American Accounting Association; the AICPA; the Financial Executives Institute; the National Association of Accountants (The Naa’s name was later changed to Institute of Management Accountants in 1991), and the Financial Analysts Federation (Schroeder etal, 2011). The FASB’s mission is to create and improve financial accounting standards for the assistance and education of the public. The IASB was established in 2001, after succeeding the International Accounting Standards Committee (IASC) which was established in 1973. The International Accounting Standards are created by the IASB and are called International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS’s). The main responsibility of the IASB is to create and issue IFRS’s, exposure drafts, and approve interpretations which are developed by the International Financial Reporting Interpretations Committee (IFRIC). These IFRS’s are the equivalent to FASB’s Statements of Financial Accounting Standards. The primary difference between the two sets of standards is, one set of standards are established in the United States and another set of standards are established in another country. The FASB and IASB are currently working to create a uniform set of International Accounting Standards (IAC’s). The two boards started working together to create this uniform set of standards in 2003. The goal of this project is to achieve â€Å"compatibility of identifying common, high-quality solutions† (Schroeder etal, 2011). The reason for the convergence of the two boards is to have a specific set of accounting standards that all countries must follow. The guidelines for the convergence of the two boards are as follows: * Convergence of accounting standards can best be achieved through the development of high-quality, common standards theme * Trying to eliminate differences between two standards that are in need of significant improvement is not the best use of the FASB’s and the IASB’s resources – instead, a new common standard should be developed that improves the financial information reported to investors * Serving the needs of investors means that the boards should seek to converge by replacing weaker standards with stronger standards (Schroeder etal, 2011) The primary standards that are to be converged are six of FASB’s Statements of Financial Concepts (SFAC’s): SFAC No. 1. â€Å"Objectives of Financial Reporting by Business Enterprises† SFAC No. 2. â€Å"Qualitative Characteristics of Accounting Information† SFAC No. 5. â€Å"Recognition and Measurement in Financial Statements of Business Enterprises† SFAC No. 6. â€Å"Elements of Financial Statements† SFAC No. 7. â€Å"Using Cash Flow Information and Present Value in Accounting Measurements† (Schreoder etal, 2011) Seven of IASB’s Framework for the Preparation and Presentation of Financial Statements are also part of the conversion: 1.  The objective of financial statements 2. Qualitative characteristics of financial statements 3. The elements of financial statements 4. Recognition of the elements of financial statements 5. Measurement of the elements of financial statements 6. Concepts of capital and capital maintenance (Schroeder etal, 2011) The standards mentioned above are the standards that appear to have the most commonality which would seem that there would be fewer obstacles. However; a prevalent variance is the amount of detail which is contained within the two frameworks. While the convergence of the two boards will be difficult, recognizing the commonalities between the frameworks is the first step in making sure the convergence goes through smoothly. Not only is it important to merge the two different sets of standards, but it is also important that the two boards work together to build onto the current set and establish additional standards that organizations are required to follow. The Master of Science in Accountancy (MSA) program prepares students for a professional life within the accounting vocation by introducing students to the standards set by the FASB and the IASB. â€Å"The (MSA) provides the breadth of knowledge for the professional accountant. Students master the theory and principles that frame a wide range of problems and issues encountered in the accounting profession† (University of Phoenix, 2011). The students are able to go in depth with the boards and discover how the entire accounting system works. By introducing the functionality of the FASB and the IASB, the students are able to understand the importance of following GAAP. By understanding GAAP and knowing the relationship between those principles and the IASB and FASB, the students will have the knowledge to perform the job and understand why the IASB and FASB set the standards that they do. The IASB and FASB are two very influential boards within the accounting field. The standards that these two boards have established and enforced have paved the way toward a single set of standards between all countries. Having a single set of standards will allow investors to view financial reports for all organizations around the world and know that the information is being reported using the same set of standards. It is important to the future success of any organization that its current and future employees are up to date on all of the rules and regulations that are part of the accounting career. The MSA program allows students the opportunity to gain the knowledge of any current and future rules that the boards have established.